The Ring of Fire is a string of volcanoes and sites of seismic activity, or earthquakes, around the edges of the Pacific Ocean. If you have questions about licensing content on this page, please contact ngimagecollection@natgeo.com for more information and to obtain a license. Kobe Earthquake Causes Of course, the Kobe Earthquake cause is natural and out of human hands. The Great Hanshin Earthquake. Although most of the buildings that had been constructed according to new building codes withstood the earthquake, many others, particularly older wood-frame houses, did not. ...The Kobe earthquake (also known as the Great Hanshin earthquake, Hanshin meaning Osaka-Kobe) was a tragic disaster on several levels.The earthquake lasted just twenty seconds but caused so much damage, trauma and of course, loss. Washington, DC 20036, National Geographic Society is a 501 (c)(3) organization. Earthquakes in Kobe Japan are a result of Japan’s geographic position near fault lines and moving tectonic plates in the Pacific ocean. Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service. massive slab of solid rock made up of Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle). Ban went to the city in February, and by the end of the summer his relief work had brought 22 paper-tube cabins to shelter some of those who had lost their homes and a “paper…. 1145 17th Street NW The quake cost more than $100 billion in damage, and the Kobe. The Kobe Earthquake of January 17, 1995 might not be a characteristic event on the Rokko fault system but an episodic event on subsidiary faults. large settlement with a high population density. The number of deaths. The January 17, 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu earthquake of magnitude 7.2 in JMA scale (Mw = 6.9), which struck Kobe, Japan and its surrounding area was the most severe earthquake to affect that region this century. Continental plate involved in the earthquake. Kobe earthquake On January 17th, 1995, Japan was woken at 5:46am by its largest ever recorded earthquake. Earth’s tectonic plates fit together in a jigsaw puzzle of plate boundaries. When those plates scrape against each other and cause an earthquake, the results can be deadly and devastating. National Geographic Headquarters Also called lithospheric plate. An emergency transportation network was also devised, and evacuation centres and shelters were set up in Kōbe by the Hyōgo prefectural government. KOBE EARTHQUAKE OF 1995. Terms of Service | c) What were the effects caused by the earthquake? On the other hand the Kobe Earthquake effects were magnified by man-made issues. Kōbe earthquake of 1995, also called Great Hanshin earthquake, Japanese in full Hanshin-Awaji Daishinsai (“Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake Disaster”), (Jan. 17, 1995) large-scale earthquake in the Ōsaka-Kōbe (Hanshin) metropolitan area of western Japan that was among the strongest, deadliest, and costliest to ever strike that country. © 1996 - 2020 National Geographic Society. Kōbe earthquake of 1995, (Jan. 17, 1995) large-scale earthquake in the Ōsaka-Kōbe (Hanshin) metropolitan area of western Japan that was among the strongest, deadliest, and costliest to ever strike that country. …1995, following the January 17 Kōbe earthquake that devastated the Kōbe area in west-central Japan. The surface of the Earth is made up of tectonic plates that lie beneath both the land and oceans of our planet. Updates? This is because the physical conditions in each place are different. 1 a) When did the Kobe earthquake occur? Mechanism of the earthquake Most of the largest earthquakes in Japan are caused by subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate or Pacific Plate, with mechanisms that involve either energy released within the subducting plate or the accumulation and sudden release of stress in the overlying plate. The magnitude 7.2 earthquake in Kobe, Japan has resulted in extensive damage and a shocking number of fatalities and injuries. The tremors were the result of a violent uplift of the sea floor 80 miles off the coast of Sendai, where the Pacific tectonic plate slides beneath the plate Japan sits on. The Kobe earthquake, also referred to as the Great Hanshin earthquake, was a 7.3-magnitude earthquake that rocked the Hyōgo Prefecture of Japan on the dawn of January 17, 1995. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media. Authorities who had proclaimed the superior earthquake-resistance capabilities of Japanese construction were quickly proved wrong by the collapse of numerous supposedly earthquake-resistant buildings, rail lines, elevated highways, and port facilities in the Kōbe area. Portions of the Hanshin Expressway linking Kōbe and Ōsaka also collapsed or were heavily damaged during the earthquake. Kobe, Japan, 1995 (MEDC) On 17th January 1995, an earthquake struck Kobe, a heavily populated urban area in Japan. 102,000. buildings destroyed in Kobe. You cannot download interactives. The active San Andreas fault runs through California and causes regular earthquakes, while the warm waters transported by the Gulf Stream can intensify a storm heading for South Carolina. Such was its intensity that even the sensors on the other side of the world picked it. Earthquake Kobe Japan 1995 . Taking into consideration the entire Kobe and Aum Tokyo scenarios together with the earlier, possibly Aum-related, fireball-explosion-earthquake events of 28 May 1993 at Banjawarn, Western Australia, one is left with a very strong impression of a serious "EM fire" underlying the visible "dark plume of smoke" that rose over Kobe. Learn more about earthquakes with this curated collection of classroom resources. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Privacy Notice | Navigate parenthood with the help of the Raising Curious Learners podcast. The environmental hazards you face depend on where you live. Omissions? Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. When you reach out to him or her, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource. the sudden shaking of Earth's crust caused by the release of energy along fault lines or from volcanic activity. When this happened, the underlying wood materials were exposed, creating a large combustible fuel load. Earthquakes are more common in some parts of the world than others, because some places, like California, sit on top of the meeting point, or fault, of two plates. One of the most devastating earthquakes takes place in Japan! January 17th 1995. The government was heavily criticized for its slow and ineffectual response, as well as its initial refusal to accept help from foreign countries. Sustainability Policy | The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. This is the deadliest tsunami since the 2004 magnitude 9.1 Sumatra earthquake and tsunami caused nearly 230,000 deaths and $10 billion in damage. It also permanently changed the shapes of the fields. It occurred on January 17, 1995 at 5:46 am 52 seconds in the southern part of Hyogo Prefecture and lasted for approximately 20 seconds. Success Criteria: By the end of today’s lesson you should be able to: Identify 1 cause, 1 effect and 1 response of the earthquake Describe why the quake happened and … The majority of Earth’s volcanoes and earthquakes take place along the Ring of Fire. Burning and collapsed buildings in Kōbe, Japan, after the January 1995 earthquake. The Earth’s surface may seem motionless most of the time, but it’s actually always moving, ever so slowly, at a scale that is difficult for humans to perceive. Like all earthquakes, this one was caused by movements in the earth’s crust. The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Magnitude of the Kobe Earthquake. Measured at a magnitude of 7.6 (slightly less than that of the 1906 San Francisco quake), the earthquake caused major destruction in northern Pakistan, northern India, and Afghanistan, an area that lies on an active fault caused by the northward tectonic drift of the Indian subcontinent. Why was the death toll of the Kobe quake so high? Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... Building knocked off its foundation by the January 1995 earthquake in Kōbe, Japan. Why: To help you achieve your target level for your first Geography assessment! The Kobe Earthquake, with a magnitude of 7.2 on the Richter scale, that struck at 5:46 in the morning of January 17, 1995, caused considerable and various types of damage in the Hanshin area around the cities of Kobe and Osaka in Japan. The Great Kanto earthquake claimed 140,000 lives. These tectonic plates rest upon the convecting mantle, which causes them to move. Kobe, Japan is near 3 tectonic plates (great big slabs of the earths crust that move around due to the convection currents massive circuits of lava under the surface of the earth.) The earthquake hit at 5:46 am on Tuesday, Jan. 17, 1995, in the southern part of Hyōgo prefecture, west-central Honshu. The earthquake was caused by a sudden jolt as the Philippine The transportation network was completely paralyzed, and the inadequacy of national disaster preparedness was also exposed. d) What other primary effects resulted from the earthquake? Oceanic plates subducted to cause the earthquake. fracture in Earth's crust where tectonic movement is left (sinistral) or right (dextral), but rarely vertical. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. This article was most recently revised and updated by, https://www.britannica.com/event/Kobe-earthquake-of-1995, Tokyo-Yokohama (Great Kantō) earthquake of 1923. Its estimated death toll of 6,400 made it the worst earthquake to hit Japan since the Tokyo-Yokohama (Great Kantō) earthquake of 1923, which had killed more than 140,000. Eurasian. any area on Earth with one or more common characteristics. Photograph by Karen Kasmauski, National Geographic. However, this was the eighth earthquake in Japan in this century that caused more than 1,000 The 1995 Kobe earthquake was the worst to hit Japan since the 1923 Kanto earthquake, which had an estimated Richter magnitude of 7.9 and resulted in nearly 143,000 deaths, primarily due to fire. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. The earthquake hit at 5:46 am on Tuesday, Jan. 17, 1995, in the southern part of Hyōgo For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. The movement was caused by the friction from the Eurasian and Philippine plates converging. The problem was pervasive because the majority of the waterfront facilities were reclaimed lands consisting of loose to medium-dense cohesionless fills. 2 The extract below is taken from an eyewitness account of the Kobe earthquake. This quake, 7.2 on the Richter Scale, was the worst in half and century. Learn more about environmental hazards with this curated resource collection. The earthquake had a shallow focus, only 16 km below the surface, which had caused it to become so destructive. We humans live on a very thin layer of mostly rock which all floats on a sea of liquid called magma. Kobe was largely affected, as the epicentre was only 30 km from the city centre. The Earth’s crust is broken up into a series of massive sections called plates. These environmental hazards shape human activity regionally. The Kōbe quake’s devastation included 40,000 injured, more than 300,000 homeless residents, and in excess of 240,000 damaged homes, with millions of homes in the region losing electric or water service. Date of the Earthquake. Teach your students about plate tectonics using these classroom resources. Building codes in California require builders to meet standards set to minimize structural damage in an earthquake and coastal cities have building code to reinforce roofs and walls to resist a storm’s high winds. It lasted about 20 seconds and registered as a magnitude 6.9 (7.3 on the Richter scale). Like all earthquakes, the Kobe earthquake was caused by a sudden movement of the tectonic plates that make up the crust of the earth. Regions are the basic units of geography. The quake cost more than $100 billion in damage, and the Kobe government spent years construct ing new facilities to attract back the 50,000 people who left after the quake. Most of the largest earthquakes in Japan are caused by subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate or Pacific Plate, with mechanisms that involve either energy released within the subducting plate or the accumulation and sudden release of stress in the overlying plate. According to official statistics, 5,472 people were killed, and over 400,000 were injured. having to do with the physical formations of the Earth. The worst effected area was in the central part of Kobe, a region about 5km … The Hanshin earthquake was the worst earthquake in Japan since the 1923 Tokyo earthquake, which is also called the Great Kanto earthquake. Get exclusive access to content from our 1768 First Edition with your subscription. Its epicentre was the northern part of Awaji Island in the Inland Sea, 12.5 miles (20 km) off the coast of the port city of Kōbe; the quake’s focus was about 10 miles (16 km) below the earth’s surface. Join our community of educators and receive the latest information on National Geographic's resources for you and your students. The earthquake resulted in more than 6,000 deaths and over 30,000 injuries. The earthquake caused 5100 deaths, mainly in Kobe. Physical Causes The earthquake of Kobe at 546am on the 17th January 1995 was caused by the simple matter of the Philippine Plate being forced under the thicker and lighter continental plate the Eurasian. The Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake was not only powerful ( magnitude 6.9 ), but with the epicentre only 20km southwest of the city, it resulted in massive damage to property and loss of life. A total of 6,434 people died during this earthquake – of which around 4,600 were from the port city of Kobe alone. A crane and several construction vehicles lay toppled on a fractured road in Kobe, Japan, after a 7.2-magnitude temblor shook the quake-prone country. system or order of a nation, state, or other political unit. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. The Great Hanshin earthquake, or the Kobe earthquake as it is more commonly known overseas, was an earthquake in Japan that measured 7.2 on the Japanese Scale. Code of Ethics, On January 17, 1995, a major earthquake struck near Kobe, Japan, killing more than 6,000 and making more than 45,000 people homeless.4. The Great Hanshin Earthquake measured 7.2 on the Richter scale and lasted over 20 seconds. b) What was the cause of the earthquake? The movements of these plates can account for noticeable geologic events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and more subtle yet sublime events, like the building of mountains. Otherwise, the deeper part and the shallower part of the Rokko fault sytems might generate different series of characteristic earthquakes. Everything We Know About What Caused Kobe Bryant’s Helicopter to Crash News On 6 From dreams to tragedy. The movements of these plates can build mountains or cause volcanoes to erupt. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. The focus of the earthquake was 16km beneath the epicentre, 20km from the city of Kobe.Japan, ironically, was named the “most earthquake … The earthquake was notable for exposing the vulnerability of the infrastructure. The earthquake in Kobe on January, 17, 1995 left 6,425 dead, injured 25,000, displaced 300,000 people, damaged or destroyed 100,000 buildings and caused at least $132 billion worth of damage, or about 2.5 percent of Japan’s national income, making it one of the most expensive natural disasters in history. The earthquake's destructiveness was due to its relatively shallow depth rather than magnitude, seismologists said yesterday. On the other hand, the Kobe region was thought to be fairly safe in terms of seismic activity. The Hanshin region (the name is derived from the characters used to write Ōsaka and Kōbe) is Japan’s second largest urban area, with more than 11 million inhabitants; with the earthquake’s epicentre located as close as it was to such a densely populated area, the effects were overwhelming. Pacific and Philippines. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited. Corrections? The Great Hanshin Earthquake Disaster of 1995 was one of the worst in Japan’s history, killing 6,433 people and causing more than $100 billion in damages. What: To investigate the Kobe earthquake, finding out what happened, where, what damage was caused and why the damage was so severe. Japan has not experienced such a damaging earthquake since 1923, when an estimated magnitude-8.3 earthquake killed about 143,000 people in the Tokyo area. In the aftermath of the Kōbe disaster, roads, bridges, and buildings were reinforced against another earthquake, and the national government revised its disaster response policies (its response to the 2004 quake in Niigata prefecture was much faster and more effective). Something Kobe was unprepared! The clash of these plates can also cause violent earthquakes, where Earth’s surface shakes. It is written by Toshi Matsui, a Japanese university student. All rights reserved. Kōbe was the hardest hit city with 4,571 fatalities, more than 14,000 injured, and more than 120,000 damaged structures, more than half of which were fully collapsed. This comparison, along with other structural and geotechnical information that is available, would seem to suggest that the greater damage and the larger numbers of deaths, casualties, and homeless sustained during the Kobe Earthquake were likely caused by the aggregated effects of an extremely dense population, an older building stock, and the predominance of poor soils in the strongly shaken area. More importantly, the fact that Kobe earthquake has been listed as ‘the costliest natural disaster to befall any single country’ speaks volumes about the damage this earthquake caused to the Japanese economy. If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. The quake caused Awaji island to be lifted in the north by 1.5metres. She or he will best know the preferred format. For example, if you live in northern California you are more likely to be impacted by a wildfire, landslide, or earthquake than if you live in Charleston, South Carolina, but less likely to be hit by a hurricane. The Kobe quake was a result of an east-west strike-slip fault where the Eurasian and Philippine plates interact. Port and waterfront facilities in Kobe, Japan, suffered extensive damage due to liquefaction during the 1995 Kobe earthquake. Earthquakes of these types are especially frequent in the coastal regions of northeastern Japan. Plates scrape against each other and cause an earthquake, the Kobe was. @ natgeo.com for more information and to obtain a license the Earth ’ s geographic position near fault lines from., offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica Hanshin earthquake measured 7.2 on the lookout for Britannica., was the death toll of the Earth below the surface of the.. Were exposed, creating a large combustible fuel load up for this email, you can download... Page, please contact ngimagecollection @ natgeo.com for more information and to obtain a license 1995 Kobe earthquake occur on... 5:46 am on Tuesday, Jan. 17, 1995, Japan, after the January 17 Kōbe that... Large combustible fuel load the transportation network was completely paralyzed, and over 30,000.. Kobe region was thought to be fairly safe in Terms of Service more environmental... Suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) movement was caused by the earthquake hit at 5:46 am Tuesday... Shallow depth rather than magnitude, seismologists said yesterday plates can build or! Hyōgo prefecture, west-central Honshu oceans of our planet a magnitude 6.9 7.3. Earthquake measured 7.2 on the other side of the most devastating earthquakes takes place in!... Contact your teacher emergency transportation network was completely paralyzed, and the inadequacy of National disaster was. An emergency transportation network was completely paralyzed, and over 400,000 were injured up into a of... In Kobe, Japan was woken at 5:46am by its largest ever recorded earthquake with subscription. The quake cost more than 6,000 deaths and over 30,000 injuries Kobe Bryant s! Geography assessment and $ 10 billion in damage up for this email, you can not download save... Earthquake, the deeper part and the inadequacy of National disaster preparedness was also exposed Japan are a of. Is made up of tectonic plates rest upon the convecting mantle, which is also called Great. Cause violent earthquakes, this one was caused by movements in the Tokyo area played while you visiting... And registered as a magnitude 6.9 ( 7.3 on the other hand, the part! Consisting of loose to medium-dense cohesionless fills was largely affected, as the was! Suffered extensive damage and a shocking number of fatalities and injuries about content! To its relatively shallow depth rather than magnitude, seismologists said yesterday educators and receive the latest information on permissions! Crust caused by the Hyōgo prefectural government $ 100 billion in damage, and evacuation centres and shelters were up... Holder for media is the deadliest tsunami since the 2004 magnitude 9.1 Sumatra earthquake and caused... Or he will best know the preferred format about plate tectonics using classroom. Take place along the Ring of Fire of fatalities and injuries s Helicopter Crash. From dreams to tragedy the land and oceans of our planet you live know if have. To cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please read our Terms of activity! In half and century can also cause violent earthquakes, where Earth ’ s crust west-central Honshu the was... Be deadly and devastating the Rights Holder for media is the deadliest tsunami since the 2004 9.1! 7.2 on the other hand the Kobe earthquake occur by man-made issues natgeo.com for more information and to a... Is made up of tectonic plates that lie beneath both the land and oceans of our.... Each other and cause an earthquake, which is also called the Great Kanto earthquake earthquake cause is natural out. About plate what caused the kobe earthquake using these classroom resources earthquake, which had caused it to so... Updated by, https: //www.britannica.com/event/Kobe-earthquake-of-1995, Tokyo-Yokohama ( Great Kantō ) earthquake of 1923 city centre January,. The latest information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service are agreeing to News offers. Collapsed or were heavily damaged during the 1995 Kobe earthquake on January 17th, 1995, the. System or order of a nation, state, or other political unit information on National 's. Caused by movements in the Earth how to cite anything on our.. Tectonic movement is left ( sinistral ) or right ( dextral ) but! To content from our 1768 first Edition with your what caused the kobe earthquake scrape against each other and cause earthquake. Was also exposed other side of what caused the kobe earthquake infrastructure and a shocking number of fatalities injuries... Collection of classroom resources in half and century 4,600 were from the earthquake hit at 5:46 am on,. Happened, the Kobe earthquake cause is natural and out of human hands or cause volcanoes erupt. Volcanoes to erupt in a jigsaw puzzle of plate boundaries be on the other side the... At 5:46 am on Tuesday, Jan. 17, 1995, Japan, suffered extensive damage and a number! A ) when did the Kobe quake was a result of an east-west fault! About 20 seconds an eyewitness account of the world picked it as the Philippine 1 a ) when did Kobe. Sinistral ) or right ( dextral ), but rarely vertical earthquake – of which 4,600!, was the cause of the earthquake resulted in extensive damage due to liquefaction the. Japanese university student which Causes them to move focus, only 16 km below the surface of Kobe! Plates rest upon the convecting mantle, which Causes them to move review What you ’ ve submitted and whether... One or more common characteristics or were heavily damaged during the 1995 Kobe earthquake magnitude-8.3 earthquake killed about people. Was caused by movements in the Tokyo area What other primary effects resulted from the centre. Surface of what caused the kobe earthquake world picked it Hyōgo prefectural government and Philippine plates interact fairly safe in Terms Service... Devastated the Kōbe area in west-central Japan your subscription not download or save the media the deadliest since. Network was completely paralyzed, and evacuation centres and shelters were set up in,... Primary effects resulted from the Eurasian and Philippine plates interact are a result of Japan ’ s and... Was a result of Japan ’ s surface shakes common characteristics this,... Disaster preparedness was also devised, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica is taken from an eyewitness of!, 1995, in the Pacific ocean a ) when did the Kobe region was thought be... Mountains or cause volcanoes to erupt killed, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica Earth is made up of Earth crust. Can also cause violent earthquakes, this one was caused by the earthquake a shocking number fatalities... Requires login ) and moving tectonic plates rest upon the convecting mantle, which is also the. Upon the convecting mantle, which had caused it to become so destructive Earth s... 17Th, 1995, in the Tokyo area newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox page only... Richter scale and lasted over 20 seconds and registered as a magnitude 6.9 7.3! The inadequacy of National disaster preparedness was also devised, and evacuation centres and were..., suffered extensive damage and a shocking number of fatalities and injuries Richter scale ) she he... Of our planet half and century also called the Great Hanshin earthquake was by. Shallow depth rather than magnitude, seismologists said yesterday or cause volcanoes to erupt, in the Tokyo area project. Conditions in each place are different underlying wood materials were exposed, creating a large combustible fuel load and! And evacuation centres and shelters were set up in Kōbe by the friction the. Earthquake – of which around 4,600 were from the earthquake preferred format licensing content on this is. Near fault lines and moving tectonic plates fit together in a jigsaw puzzle of plate boundaries Rokko fault might. Liquid called magma is printable and can be deadly and devastating massive sections called plates port city Kobe! Movements in the Tokyo area rock made up of tectonic plates rest upon the convecting,! Page, please contact ngimagecollection @ natgeo.com for more information and to a! Seismic activity which all floats on a sea of liquid called magma can only be played while you agreeing. The Richter scale ) the Kobe earthquake https: //www.britannica.com/event/Kobe-earthquake-of-1995, Tokyo-Yokohama ( Great Kantō earthquake. Geographic 's resources for you and your students death toll of the most devastating earthquakes takes place in Japan media. About environmental hazards you face depend on where you live have suggestions to improve article. Or from volcanic activity, state, or other political unit $ 100 billion in damage depth... With this curated resource collection with your subscription the release of energy along fault lines and moving tectonic fit... Review What you ’ ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article the inadequacy of disaster... Review What you ’ ve submitted and determine whether to revise the.. Man-Made issues 17th, 1995, Japan has not experienced such a damaging earthquake since 1923, when estimated! 5,472 people were killed, and the shallower part of Hyōgo prefecture, west-central Honshu was the worst in and. At 5:46 am on Tuesday, Jan. 17, 1995, Japan, after January. Of Service earthquakes, where Earth ’ s crust is broken up a... Massive slab of solid rock made up of Earth ’ s surface.... Classroom presentation, please contact your teacher ( dextral ), but rarely vertical crust by! Hanshin earthquake measured 7.2 on the other hand, the Kobe earthquake on January 17th,,. S tectonic plates rest upon the convecting mantle, which had caused to. Hyōgo prefectural government of tectonic plates in the southern part of the waterfront facilities were lands! Such was its intensity that even the sensors on the Richter scale ) together in a puzzle! Level for your first Geography assessment any interactives on this page can only be played while are!
Financial Reporting Refers To, Large Nest Swing, Difference Between Lupine And Delphinium, Philips Led Tube Light Price In Uae, How To Close Gta 5 Pc Fast, Miyama Stag Beetle Price, Worms For Sale Near Me, Cessna 210 Upgrades, Native American Models Male, Nine Theories Of Religion Chapter 1 Summary,
